Metrics without borders: advancing the global surgery agenda through data
Review Article

度量无国界:数据推动全球外科议程

John Rose1,2, Harsha Malapati2, Chao Long2, Matchecane Cossa3, Kavitha Ranganathan4

1Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA; 2Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; 3Department of Surgery, Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique, USA; 4Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

Contributions: (I) Conception and design: All authors; (II) Administrative support: J Rose, H Malapati, C Long; (III) Provision of study materials or patients: H Malapati, J Rose, C Long; (IV) Collection and assembly of data: H Malapati, C Long, J Rose; (V) Data analysis and interpretation: All authors; (VI) Manuscript writing: All authors; (VII) Final approval of manuscript: All authors.

Correspondence to: John Rose, MD, MPH. Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA. Email: jrose35@jhmi.edu.

摘要:全球外科领域已非常成熟,并声称自身是全球卫生领域的重要组成部分。多项倡议和决议标示着最近的发展势头,概述了各项议程,并为最大限度地发挥外科服务在全球卫生体系中的影响指明了道路。我们评估了全球外科文献,强调数据在推动该领域进入当前位置所发挥的作用。我们用三个案例研究证实,最好将当前的全球外科数据事业理解为一系列过程和实践,而不仅仅只是统计方法和结果的总结:案例一、COVIDSurg项目传播迅速,并及时取得成功,显示网络平台在维持广泛合作上具备的实用性;案例二、标准化的全球外科度量指标受到世界卫生组织和世界银行反复采用,告诉世人,其正融入全球卫生体系的角角落落;案例三、《世界卫生组织手术安全核对表》的早期监测和评估表明,实施科学在对量表采取干预措施方面的核心地位。总之,这些案例研究例证了研究优先级、数据收集、数据分析和结果报告是如何展示机遇之窗,进而推动全球外科手术的发展。这一观点使我们能够考虑技术和卫生政策在知识生产机制方面的关键进展,以及数据平台将如何在21世纪促进合作、整合和实施议程。

关键词:全球外科;度量;卫生政策


Received: 01 September 2020; Accepted: 28 September 2020; Published: 25 December 2020.

doi: 10.21037/jphe-2020-gs-09


引言

全球外科领域已整合成一门成熟的学科,在全球卫生领域中举足轻重。2014年,世界银行行长金墉(Jim Kim)表示,“外科之于卫生保健,即不可分割,亦不可或缺”[1]。柳叶刀全球外科委员会(LCoGS)声称,若“外科和麻醉治疗可用、可及、安全、及时且可负担”,则可最大程度发挥全球外科的影响[1]。2015年第68届世界卫生大会(WHA)上,世界卫生组织(WHO)所有成员国一致通过了第68/15号决议,旨在“加强急诊和基本外科服务及麻醉服务,并将其作为全民健康覆盖的组成部分”[2]。越来越多的人意识到,如果没有外科和麻醉治疗,逾六项可持续发展目标(SDG)将无法实现[3,4]。为充分发挥其作用,21世纪的全球外科议程涉及方方面面,包括卫生保健供给、管理、研究、宣传和政策制定。

值此全球外科的黄金时代,数据作为变革的催化剂发挥着核心作用。WHA第68.15号决议呼吁采取“有意义而又可靠的措施” 开展外科治疗,此后数月,太平洋地区的13个国家动员起来,报告了六个标准化LCOG指标中的四个指标;之后,其他国家也纷纷效仿[5-7]。这一成就意义非凡,目前所有的联合国会员国中,80%的会员国报告了外科、麻醉和产科的医生密度,37%的会员国报告了每100,000人的手术量,10%的会员国报告了及时接受手术的情况,5%的会员国报告了术后死亡率[8]。此外,有40个国家的卫生部正在将这些度量指标纳入国家外科、产科和麻醉计划(NSOAP),以找出与本地外科治疗相关的不足之处,确定优先事项[9-12]。世界各地正在构建新的信息管理系统,以兼容这些数据,并促使其在政策层面上转化为行动。

在全球卫生中,全球外科数据并不总是享有特权。最近,Sgro等人和Pauyo等人对1987年至2017年期间现有的文献进行了系统性回顾,体现出学术研究界在面对巨大困难之时坚韧不拔[13,14]的精神。有逾500家同行评议期刊在发表全球外科研究,尽管82%的研究完全没有基金资助,但其增长率仍呈指数级增长。这典型地反映了全球卫生研究基金对外科的长期忽视[15,16]。在此情况下,项目范围受到各种限制,89%的初步研究是观察性研究,主要由病例报告和病例系列组成,也就意味着证据的总体质量欠佳[13,14]。这些文献中有相当一部分(43%)完全没有任何结局测量指标。60%的论著是由单一国家的研究人员撰写完成,这与网络协作和责任分担的概念相矛盾。尤其令人担忧的是,描述中、低收入国家(LMIC)研究的稿件中,有24%完全是由高收入国家(HIC)的人员撰写完成,再现了全球卫生的殖民等级制度[17-19]。尽管面临诸多持续的挑战,但全球外科的数据事业已成功蓄足势头,在全球卫生度量领域争得一席之地。

从根本上而言,当今全球卫生数据的需求与大量倡议的活动兴起密切相关[20]。数据可以为所有致力于最大限度延长寿命和提高生活质量的利益相关者提供关键信息[21]。首个以公共卫生为主题的国际会议是国际卫生大会,旨在控制黄热病、霍乱和鼠疫等传染病。1851年,12个欧洲民族国家的参会人员订立了参会规则,该规则被沿用一个多世纪,包括1946年最终建立世卫组织[22]。随着科学进步,人们具备了治疗甚至预防这些传染病的能力,发病率、死亡率和疫苗交付率则成为资金、合作、资源分配和监测的关键筛选指标。例如,从1958年WHO天花疫苗接种运动到1980年成功根除天花,这些度量指标发挥了关键作用。然而,这种(针对单一疾病的)垂直运动(vertical campaign)早期取得的成功,掩盖了当今时代跨领域SDG所固有的挑战[23]。2015年,193个国家通过了17项SDG、169项独立子目标和230项健康指标。由于数据规模过大,各国开始依靠非政府(通常是国外的)研究团体和多边合作伙伴来收集、分析和报告数据[24-28]。数据所有权和数据生产从基于国家的形式转变为基于非政府实体的形式,而这些非政府实体经常会用其他来源的数据补充基于国家的数据(又称为“数据多元化”),这一转变标志着各国不再垄断公民的健康数据——一项近期的变革[27]

在接二连三的大规模倡议浪潮中,人们对全球外科数据的需求也开始上升。在天花被根除之际,垂直干预(vertical interventions)也成为了全球外科的支柱,1978年慈悲船(Mercy Ships)和1984年微笑行动(Operation Smile)的成立就是明证[29]。《阿拉木图宣言》将全球卫生的重点转向与“人人享有初级卫生保健”相一致的横向干预(horizontal interventions),随后WHO发起了全球急诊和基本外科手术倡议(GIEESC),以解决LMIC未得以满足的外科负担。第一步是采用世卫组织现状分析工具评估和监测外科能力和基础设施[30]。2007−2011年期间,这项调查在35个国家实施,登记了各地区医院的基础设施、人力资源、手术、设备和储备物资,调查数据录入至WHO的首个标准化外科信息中央存储库——急诊和基本外科手术全球数据库。之后,作为WHO患者安全联盟的一部分,发起“安全手术拯救生命”活动,并对手术量、可预防的围手术期错误发生率和安全手术室的分布进行了首次全球评估[31-33]。2015年,在为监测和评估SDG做准备时,WHA第68/15号决议呼吁采用标准化的手术度量指标,包括人群水平的外科注册登记和风险调整后的围手术期转归,但在本文撰写之时,这两项指标尚未完成[2]。随着这些数据集的实现,全球外科未来可期。

要彻底挖掘数据,探讨其对全球外科议程的影响,首先必须承认,数据与其产生机构和产生过程存在的内在联系。数据的生命周期包含多个切入点,均可产生影响,即:研究的优先级、基金资助、数据获取、数据分析、成果传播、消费。

全球卫生数据领域中仍然存在一些关键问题,尤其是与全球外科相关的数据,例如:“应该由谁保管卫生数据?”“如何确保不同环境下,研究的优先级和资助基金与患者和医生的需求相匹配?”“如何迅速提高本地的数据管理专业能力,促进信息技术平台开发的迭代共享学习?”“如何确保数据输出对地方医院的高层政策制定者和从业者都有用?”“如何消除技术专家建模训练和原始数据收集之间的数据差距?”“让政府和非政府组织对研究的完整性、透明度和结果负责的最佳机制是怎样的?”[34]“在补充基于国家的数据收集和结果解释方面,非政府机构应发挥什么作用?”“对数据来源持多元化的观点如何扩大现有的度量指标?”。尽管回答这些问题超出了单篇稿件的范畴,但我们给出了以下案例研究,展示数据事业将如何成为21世纪推进合作、整合和实施议程的核心。


合作

2019年12月31日,WHO驻中国办事处收到首例新型冠状病毒病例的通知。70天后,全球新型冠状病毒病例就超过了118,000例,涉及114个国家,并夺走4,291条生命,促使WHO总干事宣布全球大流行[35]。据发现,在医护人员中,外科团队感染风险非常高,且存在死亡病例报告[36]。然而,武汉和意大利的初始临床报告在很大程度上忽视了对外科系统、外科医生和外科患者的讨论[37-42]。无数问题出现在全球外科团队面前,其中最主要的是:“我们如何保护自己和患者,不至成为疾病传播的媒介?”和 “如果冠状病毒患者接受手术,其术后发病和死亡的预计风险多大?”。对于前一个问题,外科协会发布了个人防护装备和安全规程指南;对于后一个问题,新型冠状病毒带来的挑战可以看作是对全球外科数据事业在应对紧急威胁时的实时考验,考验如何灵活协作。我们如何收集证据、分析有代表性的数据以及传播成果,进而为政策制定者和一线医护人员作出决策提供信息?对该数据管理操练来说,风险再大不过了。

2020年3月14日,WHO宣布大流行3天后,GlobalSurg小组通过推特(Twitter)发起了COVIDSurg协作项目[43]。推特发布后的3天内,来自80个国家的800多名外科医生注册参与了术后转归的原创研究[44]。至3月31日,COVIDSurg工作组已发布了首份COVIDSurg在线简报,报告了遍及115个国家231家医院的2836名合作者的参与情况[45]。使用范德堡大学于2004年开发的数据收集工具“科研电子数据采集(Research Electronic Data Capture,REDCap)”软件[46],收集全球各地的患者数据进行分析,通过互联网快速传播研究信息,并借助网络工具的数据收集能力及时产出成果。2020年5月底,首篇描述感染SARS-CoV-2的外科患者转归的稿件发表在《柳叶刀》杂志上[47]。该研究发现,逾50%接受手术的SARS-CoV- 2患者有肺部并发症,这提供了必要的证据,表明医院制定的预防措施——推迟择期手术降低风险正当合理[47]。目前,COVIDSurg数据库已存储了1,000家医院的40,000多例患者的数据,且仍在增长,有望为全球外科共同体解答更多疑问[48]。例如,“择期”手术广泛取消明显扰乱了癌症的治疗,而很多患者和医生其实很难推迟绝症手术。COVIDSurg小组将发表对癌症患者的亚群分析结果,以阐明COVID-19大流行期间各亚专科择期癌症手术的转归[48]。这些研究和将来的研究为外科和麻醉团队增添了即时价值,同时也为医院管理者和政策制定者开展决策提供了具有指导意义的证据。

COVIDSurg项目表明,创新数据平台和交流方式可以加速全球外科合作的步伐,及时取得实绩。值得注意的是,十年来在线演示工具和基于网络的研究工具的成功开发为建立这种合作提供了基础。在过去十年里,GlobalSurg小组已成功招募到来自各个收入水平国家的数千例患者,进而对术后死亡和手术部位感染进行了评估[49-51]。这些数据平台在30年前还不存在,但几乎可以肯定的是,这些模型将成为我们未来的一部分。


整合

长期以来,面临融入更广泛的全球卫生共同体的挑战,全球外科一直深受其扰。尽管全球缺医少药的地区有历史丰富的外科使团和WHO的GIEESC计划去满足其未曾得以满足的需求,但早期外科倡议的临床数据既未标准化,也未集约化。同时,全球卫生共同体越来越依赖全球疾病负担(GBD)项目来分配资源和确定目标的优先级。然而,尽管GBD目前报告了195个国家的354种病因负担,使其成为有史以来发布的最大的疾病负担数据集,但它没有收集这些疾病所需要的手术频率数据[25,52]。由于外科未能融入日益受到依赖的GBD框架,因而仍受全球卫生共同体的忽视,并被戏称为全球卫生“受忽视的继子”和“灰姑娘”[53]。直到最近,才有大量倡议将外科数据纳入其中,使外科领域进入全球公共卫生的视野。

有两大成功案例,可概括将全球外科数据纳入全球卫生优先级框架的奋斗历程和最终成功。第一个案例是疾病控制优先事项(DCP)计划,这是一项由500多名学者、政策制定者和技术专家参与的庞大项目,详细说明了全球卫生优先领域的负担和经济价值[54]。DCP1(第一版)出版于1993年,未量化外科负担;DCP2出版于2006年,有一章(共七十三章)讨论了外科负担。在缺乏原始数据的情况下,这一章调查了少数外科医生,对经常需要手术的疾病类别予以了确定,并估计全球11%的伤残调整寿命年(DALY)可通过手术治疗;DCP3出版于2015年,由九卷组成,其中整个第一卷专门用于阐述外科[55]。第三版纳入了对全球负担的描述、一揽子外科干预措施、成本效益分析、对政策制定者的指导以及外科的经济影响。从DCP1到DCP3,外科内容的稳步增加,意味着人们对全球外科的关注度在提升。

第二个例子是卫生体系的常规监测和评估采用了标准化的度量指标,将之作为其组成部分。就在2009年,70%的国家都还没有外科手术频率的有关信息[56]。基于Donabedian的结构—过程—结果模型,即结构(麻醉和外科医生数量、手术室数量)—过程(每间手术室的手术比率)—结果(手术当天死亡率和院内术后死亡率),WHO “安全手术拯救生命”活动推荐了一套监测指标,内含六项度量指标[56]。这些度量指标在《WHO手术安全指南》中被正式采用,但传播有限[57]。2015年,柳叶刀全球外科委员会(LCoGS)推荐了这六个度量指标的第二个迭代版本:外科−麻醉−产科(SAO)医生密度、及时可及(2小时内)、手术量密度、术后死亡率、灾难性支出和贫困化支出[1]。WHO将及时可及、手术量密度和择期手术的等待时间纳入到了100个核心健康指标之中[58]。世界银行则将SAO密度、手术量、灾难性支出和贫困化支出纳入到了世界发展指标之中[59]。最近的这些行动将全球外科度量指标运用到了“卫生系统强化”的监测和评估机制之中。

在现有的全球卫生数据体系中纳入全球外科度量指标,再次体现了外科在可持续发展时代的核心作用。除了DCP3、SSSL运动和LCoGS之外,WHO数据收集机制的各分支现已纳入了15项外科度量指标[60]。此外,《世界卫生大会》已确认全球外科的目标与“卫生系统强化”相契合,即以下决议:关于加强姑息治疗的WHA67.19、关于抗生素耐药性的WHA67.25、关于预防和控制非传染性疾病的WHA66.10、关于加强卫生工作人员队伍的WHA64.6、关于急诊卫生系统的WHA60.22、关于预防和伤残后康复的WHA58.23、关于暴力和健康的WHA56.24、关于道路安全的WHA57.10,以及关于治疗质量和患者安全的WHA55.18[2]。全球外科度量指标的采用,标志着全球外科正在从过去的孤立无援迈向未来的融合与合作。


实施

有50亿人无法获得外科治疗[61]。对于特定干预措施效果的数据和证据,虽然不可或缺,但并不充分。这是因为循证干预(EBI)从与外界相对隔绝的受控研究环境转到真实的实践中时,这些研究中所展示出来的漂亮结果不一定能重现。EBI的确定和成功实施之间横亘着巨大的鸿沟,以至于WHO将跨越这一鸿沟的任务称之为“全球卫生共同体面临的最大挑战之一”[62]。对于将众所周知的“最佳实践”转化为常规外科治疗所面临的重重困难,人们也表达了类似的观点[63,64]。据美国国立卫生研究院(NIH)的定义,实施科学是“针对促进循证实践、干预和政策采纳整合到常规卫生保健和公共卫生之中,以提升对人群健康的影响所使用的方法的研究”,已确认将实施科学的领域迅速扩大和成熟化是跨越这一鸿沟的办法[62,65]。如果没有实施科学的工具和方法,全球外科议程,尤其是相应增加的安全、优质和可负担的外科治疗将无法实现。

手术安全核对表(SSC)说明了如何利用实施框架、结果和策略来提升全球外科开展实施性工作的效果。世界卫生组织(WHO)“安全手术拯救生命”活动在2008年发布了包含19个条目的手术核对表[66],并证实在8个不同国家的8家医院实施该检查表后,发病率和死亡率均大幅下降[67]。虽然手术核对表的使用愈加普遍,但后续研究显示,成功率不尽相同[68-70]。争论由此引发,即这是否反映了SSC自身的有效性有限,还是表明实施存在局限性[71,72]

干预的有效性与实施的有效性,二者之间孰优孰劣,可以通过实施性研究来审视[64]。首先,研究者必须确定一个实施框架,例如:在贝宁的36家医院,由于有几份报告显示手术结局改善有限,可能是由于未能成功实施SSC,于是White等人选择采用实施性研究综合框架(CFIR)作为指导,开展了针对SSC方法和评估的混合方法研究[73]。CFIR是最常用的框架之一,它包括5个需要考虑的维度和37个从现有已知的实施理论中整合出来的相应构成要素[74]。接下来,在CFIR的指导下,White等人确定了实施策略,即多学科培训,并测量了Proctor八个实施结果中的七个[73]。他们发现,所测量的实施结果均有所改善[73]。就如何应用和利用实施科学的框架、策略和结果而言,他们在全国范围内成功开展的核对表实施正是一个典范。

在另一个例子中,Hannam等人证实,WHO试点研究中心的八家医院中有一家医院与独立引进SSC的邻近医院之间在核对表依从性上存在巨大差异;他们得出结论,单靠采纳SSC并非就能获益,而是需要仔细关注“实施过程中的因素”[69]。后来,Mayer等人证实,依从性与术后并发症的减少有关,提示Haynes等人最初报道的SSC获益会受到实施成功与否的影响[75]。在这两项研究中,Hannam和Mayer所关注的结果是对SSC管理的依从性。这属于Proctor实施结果分类中的准确度,其定义为“干预措施按照原始方案规定予以实施的程度”[76]。确定实施结果后,人们可以针对性地选择和定制实施策略(例如,针对准确度可采用教育或培训策略)[77]。Putman等人证实了这一原则,据报道,在采用了包括安全研讨会、利益相关者驱动的核对表修改、报告卡系统等在内的一系列策略后,依从性有所提高[78]

该SSC案例研究说明了实施科学的框架、策略和结果为何能够用来推进全球外科议程,以及为何应该用来推进全球外科议程。他们强调,要获得成功,干预和实施都必须以数据为导向,并以强大的理论基础为指导。如果没有后者,我们将外科EBI推广到临床实践中的尝试只会成为“昂贵的试错行为”[79]。值得注意的是,还有许多其他EBI(如脉搏血氧仪、血库等)和系统层面的干预措施(如NSOAP)的例子可用于说明实施科学以及传播科学和参与性的行动研究等相关学科的贡献[10,11,80-83]。利用实施科学产生的数据来指导循证实施,可以大大推进全球外科议程。


结论

从根本上而言,全球外科议程与追求卫生公平性息息相关,尤其关注缺医少药的群体[84]。技术、方法和卫生政策方面的重大进展,加速了追逐这些目标的步伐。COVIDSurg项目、LCoGS标准化度量指标和WHO手术安全核对表等案例研究显示,研究的优先级、数据收集、数据分析和结果报告的过程和政治事务是如何展示机遇之窗,进而提高全球外科知名度及最大限度地提高其影响。这些例子提供了一个样版,以追寻一个与既往不同的未来。我们能够利用这些不断发展的数据事业,促进21世纪的合作、整合和实施议程。


Acknowledgments

Funding: None.


Footnote

Provenance and Peer Review: This article was commissioned by the Guest Editor (Dominique Vervoort) for the series “Global Surgery” published in Journal of Public Health and Emergency. The article has undergone external peer review.

Conflicts of Interest: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form (available at http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/jphe-2020-gs-09). The series “Global Surgery” was commissioned by the editorial office without any funding or sponsorship. The authors have no other conflicts of interest to declare.

Ethical Statement: The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Open Access Statement: This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits the non-commercial replication and distribution of the article with the strict proviso that no changes or edits are made and the original work is properly cited (including links to both the formal publication through the relevant DOI and the license). See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.


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译者介绍
王良
公共卫生硕士,医学笔译自由译员。国内外多家语言服务商签约译员,从事医药领域笔译工作5年余,累计翻译逾百万字。(更新时间:2021/8/15)

(本译文仅供学术交流,实际内容请以英文原文为准。)

doi: 10.21037/jphe-2020-gs-09
Cite this article as: Rose J, Malapati H, Long C, Cossa M, Ranganathan K. Metrics without borders: advancing the global surgery agenda through data. J Public Health Emerg 2020;4:36.

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